Highlights
Despite numerous international efforts to enforce strict debris mitigation, effectively controlling the growth of defunct satellites remains difficult.
Presently underutilized, Post-Mission Disposal (PMD) is the solution to space debris buildup.
Despite international agreements such as the LTS guidelines, emerging space powers are often unmotivated to conform to regulations due to the consequent upfront expenses
SPARC Student Brief
Orbital Debris
September 2020
“Space Debris” by Hopeful in NJ is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0
The Current Problem of Space Debris
Since 1957, satellites and other spacecraft have been steadily sent into Earth’s orbit, fulfilling incredible technological demands that define the modern world. Unfortunately, when defunct satellites are not properly deorbited, they become hazardous space debris which can collide with other orbital objects.
Such an impact only worsens the situation; any spacecraft involved in a collision will experience fragmentation, cultivating an even more dangerous environment for space infrastructure through the production of untraceable and potentially catastrophic micro-debris. In the long term, a buildup of debris could trigger the Kessler Effect; the theorized cascade of orbital collisions initiated by a large enough number of objects in space, rendering regions of space unusable [1].
Despite numerous international efforts to enforce strict debris mitigation, effectively controlling the growth of defunct satellites remains difficult. Since 2000, more than 440 man-made objects per year have been launched into orbit, and these craft have complied with recommended deorbiting procedures only 40-60% of the time [2]. Like all other environments, Earth’s orbit is impacted by this human activity and requires careful management to remain safe for infrastructure.
Presently underutilized, Post-Mission Disposal (PMD) is the solution to space debris buildup. At the end of a spacecraft’s operational life, a final action is performed to remove the vehicle from its orbit. For spacecraft in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), this often means performing a deorbiting maneuver to force the satellite to drift low enough that it burns up in the Earth’s atmosphere.
For higher orbits, particularly Geosynchronous Orbit (GEO), satellites may be maneuvered to what is called a “graveyard” orbit, an orbit not used by functional satellites. However, there is a frequent lack of compliance with international standards in the GEO region, where only one in three satellites performed a PMD to a graveyard orbit between 1997 and 2004 [3]. Moving forward, PMD compliance will only become more necessary as the use of satellites rapidly increases to accommodate the demand for ever-expanding communication capacity.
Although ASAT weapon-use poses a significant threat to orbital activities and remains politically opposed, ASAT tests have still been recently performed by China (2007), the United States (2008), India (2019), and Russia (2020) to demonstrate technological capability and military prowess
In addition to deorbiting noncompliance and increased satellite presence, ASAT (Anti-Satellite Weapon) testing persists as a threat to the near-Earth orbital environment and international cooperation. ASAT strikes would not only drastically increase the amount of untrackable debris but also cause it to accelerate to higher orbits. Moreover, strikes might prompt hostile actions between states and jeopardize the future of international space policy negotiation.
Although ASAT weapon-use poses a significant threat to orbital activities and remains politically opposed, ASAT tests have still been recently performed by China (2007), the United States (2008), India (2019), and Russia (2020) to demonstrate technological capability and military prowess [4, 5]. Since nations are reluctant to agree to non-armament treaties, it is unlikely that progress will be made on ASAT weapon agreements in the near future.
To resolve issues such as the widespread neglect of PMD standards, the potential for ASAT debris buildup, and the cataclysmic implications of the Kessler Effect, spacefaring nations must internationally mitigate and regulate space debris. Such action must be taken in order to maintain the long-term usability of the near-Earth environment. This brief outlines current US domestic and international space debris policy and includes a discussion on areas of weakness and potential solutions.
National and International Policies Regarding Space Debris
The critical first step in monitoring and controlling space debris was fortunately taken near the beginning of the Space Age. In 1974, the United Nations adopted the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space, an agreement requiring space actors to establish and maintain registries of space objects and supply this information to the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA). The UNOOSA registry currently contains over 86% of objects ever launched into space, a significant resource for monitoring the near-Earth environment [4].
This registry allows the international community to track whether or not decommissioned satellites have been deorbited. However, the US’s unwillingness to register certain orbital objects, such as the X-37b, often decreases international trust and bars progress on agreement negotiation. This problem could be solved if the US government provided a greater level of transparency, including the registration of such objects. Still, addressing this issue would not rectify the issue of debris being left in orbit.
By the 1990’s, action was finally taken to address the space debris issue and prevent an unmanageable buildup of debris. In 2001, The United States established the Orbital Debris Mitigation Standard Practices, which state that any spacecraft in LEO must limit post mission disposal to 25 years after the end of mission operation [7]. The US government entities NASA and the Department of Defense (DoD), each managing their own space missions, follow these rules.
For commercial space activity within the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the Department of Transportation, and the Department of Commerce all have involvement in overseeing space activity.
The FAA is responsible for granting licenses for space launches. The FCC grants permits for communications satellites, and NOAA oversees any earth observation spacecraft [7]. The FCC’s guidelines regarding orbital debris mitigation are consistent with the guidelines of the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), an international governmental forum that addresses space debris issues [8]. Licenses from the FCC and FAA require end-of-life plans from the respective satellite company, though there is no central authority to maintain oversight of space operations to ensure compliance many years after launch [9].
The same enforcement and regulations that are contentious on the world stage have also been mismanaged within the United States, which has a patchwork system that does not transparently demonstrate enforcement.
Attempts to further develop policy and guidelines to control the near-Earth orbital environment continue to occur. Following a decade of work, the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) approved its developed guidelines on Long-Term Sustainability (LTS) of Outer Space Activities in 2019 [10]. There are 92 member states of COPUOS who agreed on the guidelines, and the COPUOS guidelines also took input from the commercial space sector in their development [11].
Though members are not bound by the agreement to adhere to the guidelines, this agreement is the most thorough international standard for space debris mitigation to date. Many COPUOS countries that are not considered to be significant space actors have agreed to the LTS guidelines. The involvement of new space actors will hopefully lead to upfront implementation of debris mitigation procedures in these countries’ future space operations.
Debris mitigation and ASAT enforcement at the international level is challenging. Despite international agreements such as the LTS guidelines, emerging space powers are often unmotivated to conform to regulations due to the consequent upfront expenses. Furthermore, satellite companies may be willing to cut costs in their operations by neglecting post-mission disposal systems. In nations with little oversight and enforcement, the commercial sector is more likely to neglect debris mitigation.
The same enforcement and regulations that are contentious on the world stage have also been mismanaged within the United States, which has a patchwork system that does not transparently demonstrate enforcement. The US lacks a finalized procedure for ensuring enforcement regarding commercial programs and space debris mitigation.
Enforcement of the Orbital Debris Mitigation Standard Practices is performed by multiple agencies, including the FAA, FCC, NOAA, and the Department of Commerce. This results in a complex and ambiguous situation of government responsibility regarding the actions of space actors in the commercial sector. The regulatory responsibility itself has been continually punted between government agencies and has now landed largely within the Department of Commerce, which has not been granted funding by Congress to perform this duty. Leading by example domestically could bolster compliance and pressure at the international level.
Policies to Pursue
Space debris is an issue that affects all countries and as more nations become space-capable, international motivation to address the problem is anticipated to strengthen. Improved policy within the United States itself will serve as an example to other nations, increasing the nation’s soft power and cultivating trust in the United States when negotiating with other states for improved space practice enforcement [9].
The approval of the UN COPUOS Long-Term Sustainability (LTS) of Outer Space Activities guidelines in 2019 showed that agreement can be established on space activity at the international level. The question of enforcement regarding such guidelines must still be addressed, but most responsibility for enforcement will fall to each respective nation. Though the question of international enforcement remains, further work on the LTS guidelines is necessary to specifically address the space debris problem.
Endnotes
[1] Matignon, L. de G., “The Kessler syndrome and space debris,” Space Legal Issues Available: https://www.spacelegalissues.com/space-law-the-kessler-syndrome/.
[2] Mudgway, D. J., William H. Pickering: America’s Deep Space Pioneer , Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA History Division, Office of External Relations, 2008.
[3] Jehn, R., Agapov, V., and Hernández, C., “End-Of Disposal of Geostationary Satellites,” 4th European Conference on Space Debris, vol. 587, Apr. 2005, p. 373.
[4] U.S. Space Command Public Affairs Office. “Russia Conducts Space-Based Anti-Satellite Weapons Test.” United States Space Command, U.S. Space Command, 23 July 2020, www.spacecom.mil/MEDIA/NEWS-ARTICLES/Article/2285098/russia-conducts-space-based-anti-satellite-weapons-test/.
[5] Weeden, B., and Samson, V., “Op-ed: India’s ASAT test is wake-up call for norms of behavior in space,” SpaceNews.com Available: https://spacenews.com/op-ed-indias-asat-test-is-wake-up-call-for-norms-of-behavior-in-space/.
[6] De Man, Philip. “The Relevance of ITU Regulations for Clarifying the Space Debris Concept and Strengthening Guidelines on the Removal of Satellites at the End of Their Functional Life.” Annals of Air and Space Law, vol. 38, 2013, p. 235.
[7] Stansbery, G., “NASA Orbital Debris Program Office: Briefing to the NASA Advisory Council.”
[8] NASA, “Handbook for Limiting Orbital Debris”, p. 150-154. Available: https://standards.nasa.gov/standard/osma/nasa-hdbk-871914
[9] Samson, Victoria. Personal interview. 29 May 2020.
[10] Keusen, T., “Long-term sustainability of outer space activities,” United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs Available: https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/topics/long-term-sustainability-of-outer-space-activities.html.
[11] Foust, J., “Long-awaited space sustainability guidelines approved by UN committee,” Space News Available: https://spacenews.com/long-awaited-space-sustainability-guidelines-approved-by-un-committee/.
The authors are members of Students for the Exploration & Development of Space at the UW, a student club based in the aeronautics and astronautics department at the University of Washington.
The views expressed in this SPARC Brief are those of the author, and do not reflect the official policy or position of SPARC or the University of Washington.